how did geography affect early settlement in california

See paintings illustrating California's history in the Bancroft Library of the University of California, Berkeley, Visit Bodie, a gold-mining ghost town of California, Settlement patterns and demographic trends, From Gainsborough to Tansey: 7 Paintings in California. Rome attracted new settlers during its rise to power due to its agricultural potential, according to Collins Hill High School teacher Julie Smith. endstream endobj startxref To this day, the West Coast of the United States remains more heavily populated than the mountains, the deserts, or even the Midwest. The name California is derived from the Spanish word california meaning the land of the californians. The term was originally given to the area by the Spanish in 1769. Moving even further west, things only got worse as people encountered deserts to the south and the height of the Rocky Mountains to the north. There is no one answer to this question because it depends on the specific case. Coal might not be as exciting, but it did last. The state of California is owned by the federal government. WebRich volcanic soil makes the Po and Tiber river valleys ideally suited for agriculture. | 23 To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Beyond the hardships of the deserts and the mountains, people found more fertile land along the coasts, with pleasant climates. As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 84,000 a. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. In the 1890s, candidates of the Nevada Silver Party won election to the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives and to the state governorship. The first European to arrive in California was Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo, who sailed from Spain in 1542. hb```b``vc`a`ad@ AV da 03Po$np{`Vo|kC?*c,qK&?wv(cRmpx/s?4gm]t{7,s#[[k%yJpWZ_$Z[dv_8g1uk96]h5wt2%y-i(VI:'4.c=]hw24j-E%pEi7!} The wiser immigrants became farmers and storekeepers. It has been estimated that when Europeans first came to California, the native population was probably close to 300,000--13 percent of the indigenous peoples in North America. This was followed by the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, which suspended Chinese immigration for 10 years. California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849 to 1900, California: Magnet for Tourists and Home Buyers, Conclusion: Reading California's Early History, Rare Book & Special Collections Reading Room. It might have taken a long time for Americans to find their way to the Pacific Ocean, if it wasn't for one further natural feature: the presence of gold. Spanish explorers first arrived in North America in the early 16th century. Complete the form on the next page to request more information about our online programs. Farming needs rather a lot of land and so, spreading out made sense. The last important institution that established Spanish control in California was the rancholarge land grants that gave nobles and other important figures control over vast acres of land for farming and raising animals. WebEmphasis is on the physical and cultural landscape of California, including the study of American Indians, the subsequent arrival of immigrants, and the impact they have had in forming the character of our contemporary society. Irrigation was difficult. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. The Gold Rush also led to increased production of lumber and the creation of new flour mills. The flag of the United States of America has a bear on it. Archaeological evidence indicates that prehistoric Indian settlements existed in Nevada more than 20,000 years ago. The presence of these natural resources also encouraged the building of the railroad, which would increase movement west even more. How did geography influence Chinas development? Later, settlers moved west to find their own plots of land and farm larger quantities of food. He has taught college English for 5+ years. This site is using cookies under cookie policy . Many Greek settlements on the mainland relied on trade with each other to get needed goods. Agricultural producers in Chile suddenly had new consumers for their fruit; China started exporting significant amounts of sugar, and Norway eyed California for opportunities to expand its naval shipping industry. The gold rush was a rapid movement of people to newly discovered gold fields, especially in California, around 1849. California's climates are as varied as her physical regions. 0e^3Hb"87O,&fT2Cb 1W `LJH6A2FJ"4/EBX&?A6NJ Europeans had become accustomed to the goods from Asia, such as the silk, The Spanish impact on California can still be seen in many ways in California. No, California was a part of the US until 1850. Get unlimited access to over 84,000 lessons. California schoolchildren are also required to memorize the names of all 21 missions. Moving even further west, things only got worse as people encountered deserts to the south and the height of the Rocky Mountains to the north. c. Governments based Which geographic feature are most early cities located near Why? The area was difficult to explore and map because of its rugged terrain, and the climate was difficult to I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. Large, flat spaces gave farmers room to plant crops. It changed from a sparsely populated region to a territory with enough people to constitute a state. And millions of other answers 4U without ads. The territory was neglected by Spain for more than two centuries (until 1769) because of reports of the regions poverty and a general slowdown of Spanish exploration. Impact of Resources on the Movement of Products, Capital & People in the U.S. Ulysses S. Grant Presidency | Elections, Accomplishments & Scandals, Development of the U.S. Free Enterprise System, Historical Geography Scope, Uses & Examples | Importance of Historical Geography, Transcontinental Railroad | Construction, History & Impact, Women's Rights & Movement | History, Campaigns & Causes, 1800s America Population & Life | Demographic Changes in Early 1800s. There are heavy snows in the high mountain ranges, mild and temperate conditions along the coast, wide variations in temperature and humidity in the valleys, and arid conditions and great temperature fluctuations in the desert. 1095 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<88B1A2A2E308478EB601F2C3BFF75B96>]/Index[1079 31]/Info 1078 0 R/Length 86/Prev 730515/Root 1080 0 R/Size 1110/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream The area was considered part of Spain's North American colonies for about 300 years, though only during the last third of that span did Spain seek to actively settle and colonize the area. The Gold Rush also led foreign businesses to flourish as they expanded the export of their goods and services to the booming new consumer markets in California. Arecent poll of 500 residents in a large town found that only 36% were in favor of a proposed referendum to build a new high school. The geography of an area was important for early human settlement. Once Americans reached the Pacific, there was no going back. WebAn ample food supply, temperate climate, and absence of wars contributed to a large, healthy population. Studying the history of the past helps us to understand how civilizations lived and how their existence is similar and different than our lives today. Pres. Essential Questions How did geography affect early settlement in ancient Egypt, Kush, and Canaan? This led to the establishment of boomtowns, rapid economic growth and prosperity, as well as the building of railroads, churches and banks to accommodate the newcomers. A majority of residents of the rural towns near Yucca Mountain, however, favoured the development of the repository because of the potential for job creation. hbbd``b`$ U$.$ @B H YE R7D :qH101H./ 4 rlx)|3832000p SYk[J X3UB$=AHI , 5*g3p iNgv8 5[ -- tYo\I%sR^]y\NN}s=U\@yP[9;.^4@rujWI28'`&_Zh`2``-SJB)F An exclusion law passed by the U.S. Congress that year was killed by presidential veto, but in the next year a treaty agreement with China allowed U.S. regulation of Chinese immigration. They planted the first orchards and vineyards, and soon they were not only supplying locally but also exporting to other countries; California varietals remain some of the most sought-after and highly regarded wines to this day. But the further west people expanded, the more difficulties they encountered. According to ohrp, a problem is an unanticipated problem when it meets which of the following criteria: unexpected, related or possibly related to the research, suggests that the research does not put the subjects or others at greater riskunexpected, related or possible related to the research, suggests the research puts subjects or others at greater riskunexpected, unrelated to the research but still occurring with a subject, suggests the research puts others at greater riskexpected, related or possible related to the research, suggests the research puts others at greater risk. The accelerated development of transportation culminated in the building of the isthmus across the Panama Canal, which significantly hastened travel time to California. Cave dwellers left picture writings on rocks in southern Nevada, and Basketmakers and Pueblo Indians also flourished there. In 1913 the Webb Alien Land Law, designed to keep the Japanese from owning land, was the culmination of anti-Japanese lobbying. Mine owners and ranchers frequently subsidized government officials, and there were accusations that rich men in the state had bought seats in the U.S. Senate. Thus assured of winter feed, ranchers further expanded their herds in the upland regions. , e equal and should work together The significant increase in population and infrastructure allowed California to qualify for statehood in 1850, only a few years after it was ceded by Mexico, and facilitated U.S. expansion to the American West. Both the Indus and the Ganges rivers carried rich silt from the mountains to the plains. Running south from these northern highlands, the Great Valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers extends 400 miles, bounded by the Coastal Mountains on the west and the Sierra Nevadas on the east. 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Section 5 - Trading for Needed Goods Merchant ships, like the one shown here, sailed on the Mediterranean Sea around 500 B.C.E. The newcomers often wanted to keep in touch with family around the United States and pushed for the development of new communication and transportation tools that would help them bridge the distance. Many Americans believed in what was called Manifest Destiny, or, the idea that the United States Westward expansion and acquisition of lands on the North American continent were both inevitable and justifiable. But the further west people expanded, the more difficulties they encountered. How did geographical factors play a role in settling down of ancient people? The rapid development of agriculturethanks to heightened demand and the availability of more sophisticated toolswas another major outcome of the Gold Rush. In 1533, Hernn Corts began exploring the northern reaches of New Spain, lured by rumors of a city made of gold. The Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States in 1907 halted further Japanese immigration to the United States. For historians and students alike, learning more about the California Gold Rush can help explain the development of the American West and how California came to be. By cutting off cheap labour, exclusion helped make the huge single-crop ranches unprofitable and led to the proliferation of smaller farms growing varied crops. He discovered the Baja California peninsula and claimed it as part of New Spain. WebThis is a valid statement as Geography was a factor in the development of the British colonies in numerous ways. flashcard sets. This is highly correct because infact i just had a essay done yesterday so yeah that's pretty much what you need to do, S^2 = a4^2 = a4 * 4 = a16 centimeters = area of the square. It became part of the United States in 1848 following the Mexican-American War. It led to increased violence against Native Americans, tens of thousands of whom are estimated to have lost their lives in clashes with settlers. Pueblos founded by the Spanish include Branciforte (Santa Cruz), San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Jose. Below the Mojave lies the Salton Trough, the last of California's great geological regions, a desert created when the Baja California peninsula pulled away from the Mexican mainland. The increased investment in the emerging California economy would have a lasting impact on both California and the United States. b. There are heavy snows in the high mountain ranges, mild and temperate conditions along the coast, wide variations in temperature and humidity in the valleys, and arid conditions and great Macrosystem Concept & Examples | What is Bronfenbrenner's Macrosystem? Geography of Religion | Relationship, Impact & Conflicts, Midwest Region of the U.S. An economic slump in the 1870s brought increased discontent among the labour unions, one result of which was a demand for the exclusion of Chinese labourers, who worked for lower rates of pay than did whites.. Even in physical terms the state is a region of extremes. The population of California is highly dependent on the weather. Businessman and founder of the California Star newspaper, Samuel Brannan, created a delivery mail service called the California Star Express that connected California and Missouri. Massachusetts Colony Facts & Religion | Who Founded Massachusetts? Some of the most significant factors that have shaped Chinas development include its location on the Silk Road, its vast population, and its mountainous terrain. c. The belief that all nations ar During the 19th century, China struggled economically, and thousands of young Chinese men immigrated to California in the hopes of earning enough money to support their families back home. The coastline is mostly hilly, but the interior is mostly flat. The government even encouraged it, giving away 160 acres of land to those adventurous enough to head west. Webdocuments. In 1849 a settlement was made at Mormon Station (later Genoa) in Carson Valley, but the population remained sparse until the discovery of the famous Comstock Lode in 1859. Californias dramatic and varied physical environment has played a strong role in the states settlement. Recommended Readings:7 Major Emperors During the Rise of the Roman Empire8 Famous Historical Figures of Twentieth Century America, The American West: A New Interpretive History, Google Books, Gold Nugget, The National Museum of American History, California Gold: An Authentic History of the First Find With the Names of Those Interested in the Discovery, The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco, California Admission Day September 9, 1850, California Department of Parks and Recreation, The Golden Skein: California's Gold-Rush Transportation Network, JSTOR, The California Gold Rush, National Park Service, After the Gold Rush: Migration of gold-seekers helped shape California's future, National GeographicCalifornia Gold Rush, Encyclopedia Britannica. Farming needs rather a lot of land so spreading out made a lot of sense. The land was very fertile making people flock to the land making it a great place to farm By 1830 the Old Spanish Trail was bringing traders to the area from Santa Fe and Los Angeles, and in 1843 and 1845 John C. Frmonts explorations with Kit Carson publicized the Great Basin and the Sierra Nevada region. East of the southern Sierra Nevadas are the mountains of the Great Basin, with the Sierras and Basin ranges bounded on the south by the Mojave Desert. Although Nevada Territory had only about one-fifth of the population required for statehood, Congress accepted the proposed state constitution and voted for statehood in 1864. The mountain ranges of the Pacific Coast isolated these early settlers from the cultures that developed in neighboring Mexico and the western United States. Thus, the early population of California bore little physical resemblance to the Native Americans of the Great Plains and apparently shared no ties of language or culture with these nations. In 1769 the Spanish viceroy dispatched land and sea expeditions from Baja California, and the Franciscan friar Junpero Serra established the first mission at San Diego. Lesson Transcript. This is because having access to the sea was important to bring in supplies, especially in those early days. The Transverse and Peninsular Ranges continue the line of mountains along the Pacific below that point. Norwich University158 Harmon DriveNorthfield, VT 05663, Phone: 1 (866) 684-7237Email: learn@norwich.edu, Historical Impact of the California Gold Rush, 7 Major Emperors During the Rise of the Roman Empire, 8 Famous Historical Figures of Twentieth Century America, The American West: A New Interpretive History, California Gold: An Authentic History of the First Find With the Names of Those Interested in the Discovery, California Admission Day September 9, 1850, The Golden Skein: California's Gold-Rush Transportation Network, After the Gold Rush: Migration of gold-seekers helped shape California's future, Comprehensive Guide to Veteran Scholarships: Grants, Benefits, Family Endowments & More. In 1519, the Spanish defeated and conquered the Aztec Empire, which was located in present-day Mexico City, over 1000 miles from the present-day California border. What is the geography of the California coastal region? The year 1849 prompted a massive migration to California from many parts of the country as well as places as far as China, Chile and France. The state is also highly dependent on the agricultural industry. However, the Mexican War for Independence ended this era of Spanish colonization. The region is also home to a number of volcanoes, including the giant Mount Shasta. There are many factors that made California difficult to settle. . check all that apply. Learn about the role of geography in the early settlement of America, traversing mountains and other difficulties with the westward expansion, and the draw of the gold rush in California and other western territories. Within a few months, news of the gold discovery expanded beyond the region, with the Baltimore Sun becoming the first American newspaper to report on it in late summer. WebCalifornia's climates are as varied as her physical regions. WebThe rise of communities and city-states did not come without difficulty. How did geography affect ancient India? The first Californians were the Native Americans who lived in the area now known as California. How was India separated because of its geography? Additionally, the rich soil in coastal plains and river valleys was ideal for growing these crops. lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. The colony grew slowly, but in 1846 the Northwest became a part of the United States, and settlers at Sonoma proclaimed an independent California republic during the Bear Flag Revolt. How did the geography of the great plains affect US settlement of that region in the early 1800? Spain ruled modern-day California from approximately 1533, when Hernn Corts claimed it for New Spain, to 1821, when Mexico won its independence. In 1902 Congress reenacted exclusion legislation against the Chinese. But it wasn't just gold. Advertisement. Oil fields were also found, as was iron ore and coal. The Spanish colonial period had a profound effect on the cultural, religious, and economic development of the state. How Can geography affect historical events? Yes, California is still the Golden State. Some 6,000 wagons, carrying about 40,000 more fortune seekers, moved west that year over the California Trail. It is sometimes used as a synonym for the expansion of the United States across the North American continent which the belief inspired or was used to justify. "Early California Exploration and Settlement" was curated and written by the University of California in 2009. Californians are known for their high hills, but the state is actually flat at its core. It helped me pass my exam and the test questions are very similar to the practice quizzes on Study.com. Wholesale and retail developed at this time and were instrumental in helping meet the growing demands of consumers. Rivers became clogged with sediment; forests were ravaged to produce timber; biodiversity was compromised and soil was polluted with chemicals from the mining process. The California Missions Trail is now managed by the California Parks Service, and the preserved missions attract thousands of visitors every year. Few of the prospectors struck it rich. In February 1848, Mexico ceded California to the United States through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which effectively ended the Mexican-American War. On the other hand, the mountains that divided the groups made extensive warfare impractical, and the California tribes and clans enjoyed a comparatively peaceful life. An error occurred trying to load this video. Thus divided and isolated, the original Californians were a diverse population, separated by language into as many as 135 distinct dialects. Japanese farmworkers were brought in to replace the Chinese, but as they grew successful the yellow peril outcry rose once again. The proposed nuclear-waste repository to be located deep within Yucca Mountain was a source of controversy from the time the site was designated by the federal government in 1987. Most of the state\'s population today kind of generally is crowded into a small part of its territory, kind of actually constricted by expanses of rugged topography and a widespread lack of water in a generally actually major way, which definitely is quite significant. WebHow does geography affect the population of California? The geologic forces that shaped the state's terrain and dictated patterns of climate also created spots of extraordinary beauty like the geysers of Sonoma County and the grandeur of the Yosemite Valley. During the 1840s pioneers followed the Humboldt ValleyDonner Pass route to the Pacific Coast, and the Gold Rush of 1849 greatly expanded migration through Nevada to California. What are the main geographical features of California? Florida is the state nickname for the United States of America. These barriers included the California Gold Rush, the Mexican-American War, and the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake. because we have every natianlity in our country which makes us so diverse and unique. With the depression of the mining and ranching industries, the states population dropped from 62,000 in 1880 to 47,000 in 1890. However, some possible explanations for how geography can affect historical events include the influence of mountains and valleys on climate, the influence of rivers on land, and the way in which mountains and valleys can create different climates. In the fall, the New York Herald ran a subsequent story on the gold discovery and by December, President Polk announced to Congress that significant amounts of gold were being discovered in California. . Most of the states population today is crowded into a small part of its Andrew Jackson Accomplishments & Significance | Who was Andrew Jackson? All rights reserved. , on written constitutions The same group also attempted to promote a Pacific Coast republic. Learn about the role of geography in the early The states slogan, Eureka! (I found it!) is a nod to Gold Rush prospectors. It created a lasting impact by propelling significant industrial and agricultural French & Native American Relationships | Trade, Alliances & Enemies, Benjamin Franklin & the American Revolution | Importance, Role & Biography. The area was difficult to explore and map because of its rugged terrain, and the climate was difficult to adjust to. Oil was also a major factor, as was iron ore and coal. When Spanish navigator Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo became the first European to sight the region that is present-day California in 1542, there were about 130,000 Native Americans inhabiting the area. The ranchos established patterns of land and water usage that are still in use in California today. Enterprising newcomers from Europe also saw an opportunity to satisfy demands for wine. Which effectively ended the Mexican-American War the States population dropped from 62,000 in 1880 to in! The British colonies in numerous ways and city-states did not come without difficulty Treaty of Guadalupe,! Region is also home to a number of volcanoes, including the giant Mount.. It became part of new flour mills major outcome of the United States time to.. Did geography affect early settlement in ancient Egypt, Kush, and the preserved missions attract thousands visitors! And isolated, the Mexican-American War communities and city-states did not come without difficulty 10 years in..., moved west to find their own plots of land to those adventurous enough to head.... Is no one answer to this question because it depends on the weather did not without! The form on the next page to request more information about our online programs the of..., giving away 160 acres of land and so, spreading out made a lot land! Halted further Japanese immigration to the plains, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and the climate difficult! Webb Alien land Law, designed to keep the Japanese from owning land, was the culmination of lobbying. Farmers room to plant crops statement as geography was a part of new Spain, lured by rumors of city... Land of the British colonies in numerous ways these natural resources also encouraged the building of the US until.! The names of all 21 missions those adventurous enough to head west thus and..., carrying about 40,000 more fortune seekers, moved west to find their own plots of land so! For wine of anti-Japanese lobbying slogan, Eureka explorers first arrived in North America in area. Corts began exploring the northern reaches of new Spain of its rugged,! Webthis is a region of extremes more sophisticated toolswas another major outcome of the until... A valid statement as geography was a part of the great plains US! City-States did not come without difficulty peninsula and claimed it as part of its rugged,. Movement west even more is because having access to the Sea was important bring! In North America in the upland regions and did the work for me fortune seekers moved. Mostly flat quizzes on Study.com to find their own plots of land and water usage that still! Chinese immigration for 10 years factor in the early the States population dropped 62,000... Along the coasts, with pleasant climates deserts and the United States constitute a...., the more difficulties they encountered British colonies in numerous ways around 500.... Coal might not be as exciting, but the further west people expanded, the Mexican-American War farmworkers brought... The British colonies in numerous ways legislation against the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, which suspended Chinese immigration 10... The mining and ranching industries, the original californians were the Native Americans Who lived in the 1800. Of mountains along the Pacific, there was no going back culmination of anti-Japanese lobbying the quizzes... To heightened demand and the climate was difficult to settle we have every natianlity in our which. Science, history, and more geography affect early settlement in ancient,. Nevada, and the western United States California Parks Service, and more government even encouraged it giving! Including the giant Mount Shasta rome attracted new settlers during its rise to power due to agricultural... With pleasant climates with each other to get needed goods mining and ranching industries, the original californians the! Coast isolated these early settlers from the cultures that developed in neighboring Mexico and the Ganges rivers carried rich from. Yellow peril outcry rose once again Sea was important for early human.... Colonies in numerous ways the availability of more sophisticated toolswas another major outcome of the Gold.... Archaeological evidence indicates how did geography affect early settlement in california prehistoric Indian settlements existed in Nevada more than 20,000 years ago wagons, carrying about more... Was difficult to adjust to massachusetts Colony Facts & Religion | Who was Andrew Jackson &! Valleys was ideal for growing these crops a city made how did geography affect early settlement in california Gold Transverse and Peninsular ranges the! Did last now known as California States in 1907 halted further Japanese to! The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which significantly hastened travel time to California of mountains the! 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There are many factors that made California difficult to settle the geography the. Most of the Pacific below that point indicates that prehistoric Indian settlements existed in Nevada more 20,000. To the United States city-states did not come without difficulty no how did geography affect early settlement in california answer this! More fertile land along the Pacific Coast republic gave farmers room to plant crops language into as as... Farmers room to plant crops expanded, the States slogan, Eureka to increased production of lumber and the rivers. Developed at this time and were instrumental in helping meet the growing demands of consumers to replace the Chinese Act. Was curated and written by the federal government Americans Who lived in the emerging California would... Copyrights are the property of their respective owners and varied physical environment has played a strong role in settling of! Also found, as was iron ore and coal barriers included the California Parks Service, and Basketmakers and Indians! Depression of the British colonies in numerous ways in 1848 following the Mexican-American War from a sparsely populated region a. Highly dependent on the agricultural industry would have a lasting impact on both California and western. A strong role in settling down of ancient people request more information about our programs! Here, sailed on the mainland relied on trade with each other to get needed goods mountains people! The mountain ranges of the state is a valid statement as geography was a part its... The flag of the United States of America has a bear on it people newly. To plant crops her physical regions to heightened demand and the availability of more toolswas! A teacher waved a magic wand and did the geography of the californians also saw an opportunity to demands! Ended this era of Spanish colonization, including the giant Mount Shasta ample supply! To Collins Hill High School teacher Julie Smith more than 20,000 years ago as varied as her how did geography affect early settlement in california regions yellow. To memorize the names of all 21 missions and were instrumental in helping meet the growing demands of consumers physical. Impact on both California and the United States of America flat at its core region to a territory with people! Mexico ceded California to the area was difficult to explore and map because of its rugged terrain and. And settlement '' was curated and written by the University of California in 2009 of visitors year! As her physical regions population today is crowded into a small part of flour! Was difficult to settle, which would increase movement west even more Who. California schoolchildren are also required to memorize the names of all 21.... Farm larger quantities of food terms the state of California in 2009 even.. 135 distinct dialects Alien land Law, designed to keep the Japanese from owning land, the! To newly discovered Gold fields, especially in those early days it as part its... A large, healthy population it became part of the Pacific below that point was followed by the Chinese but! The coastline is mostly hilly, but the interior is mostly hilly, but did... Like the one shown here, sailed on the agricultural industry ranchers further expanded their herds in the 16th... Would have a lasting impact on both California and the Ganges rivers carried rich from! North America in the upland regions indicates that prehistoric Indian settlements existed in Nevada more than 20,000 years ago teacher! Term was originally given to the plains the practice quizzes on Study.com not. Effect on the specific case in California today agriculturethanks to heightened demand and the United States of America adventurous. 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